However, he set a goal of obtaining an efficiency of nearly 6 percent, the threshold that engineers of the time felt it was necessary to reach if photovoltaic cells were to be seriously regarded as electrical power sources. Frittss solar cell was not particularly efficient, but it proved that solar power was a viable source of energy. Elizabeth MacLennan is a fact checker and expert on climate change. Click here to read our privacy policy in full. Students. 2013: World-wide solar PV installations pass 100 gigawatts. In 1954, Bell Labs Daryl Chapin, Calvin Fuller, and Gerald Pearson created a silicon single-crystal photovoltaic (PV) cell capable of about 6% conversion efficiency with direct sunlight, enough to power an electric device for several hours of a day.15Their patent, US patent no 2,780,765, issued in 1957. Draw us a picture, share it, and tag us @namastesolar. Fritts sent one of his solar panels to Werner von Siemens, whose reputation ranked on a par with Edisons. Check out this TED-Ed video for a more visual explanation of how solar panels work: Thats enough science and history for now. 2,402,662. 1967: The Soviet Union's Soyuz 1 becomes the rst solar-powered spacecraft to carry humans. There are many solar energy activities for kids, so weve split it out into age group. Fritts, building on the work of European scientists, created the first photoelectric module. Theory could now explain the phenomenon in terms understandable to science. 124, no. Marketing in 1903 for solar-driven steam engines; Pasadena, California. 2. Besides single-crystal technologies, research has also focused on polycrystalline silicon, organic, and thin-film technologies. 2020: California requires all new homes to have solar panels. This device was made using selenium, a semiconductor material that is capable of converting sunlight into electricity. His theoretical calculations of its potential were encouraging. 60 years ago this week, the modern solar cell came into being. Fritts's devices were very inefficient converters of energy; they transformed less than 1 percent of absorbed light energy into electrical energy. Read More It is most sudden. CHARLES FRITTS, THE UNKNOWN INVENTOR OF SOLAR PANELS Solar energy is the second fastest growing renewable energy in the world, according to the International Energy Agency. Before the first modern solar panels were invented by Bell Laboratories in 1954, the history of solar energy was one of fits and starts, driven by individual inventors and scientists. Definition and Importance, How to Charge Your Electric Car With Solar Panels: Top Considerations, Solar Incentives Explained: Tax Credits, Rebates, and Other Incentives, Solar Panels for Apartments: 6 Ways for Renters To Go Solar, How Do Solar Lights Work? 588,177, As the 20 Century approached, scientists across the globe gained a deeper understanding of the forces of nature, in the process laying the theoretical and practical foundations for the rise of semiconductor solar cells. See eg, L. Fraaset al,Over 35% efficient gGaAs/GaSb stacked concentrator cell assemblies for terrestrial applications, 21 IEEE PV specialist conference 190 (1990). These electrons then flow through the conductive material to the positively charged side of silicon, creating an electric current. That of the sun great., Maxwell was among many European scientists intrigued by a behavior of selenium that had first been brought to the attention of the scientific community in an article by Willoughby Smith, published in the 1873 Journal of the Society of Telegraph Engineers. The energy crisis of the early 1970s spurs the first commercialization of solar technology. Wiki-Solar, Utility-scale solar in 2018: Still growing thanks to Australia and other later entrants,https://wiki-solar.org/library/public/190314_Utility-scale_solar_in_2018.pdf(14 Mar 2019). You may see solar powered cars. [Abstract], On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light, Czochralski-Grown Silicon Crystals for Microelectronics, Why the Price of New Solar Electricity Fell an Incredible 89% in the Last Decade. Silicon prepared this way needs but a certain amount of outside energy for activation, which lamplight provided in one of Pearsons experiments. The name Charles Fritts has over 81 birth records, 28 death records, 22 criminal/court records, 231 address records, 55 phone records & more. The pioneers in photoelectricity failed to attain the goals they had hoped to reach, but their efforts were not in vain. "Solar Cells: In Research and ApplicationsA Review." 17. 2020: The International Energy Agency states that Solar is the new king of the electricity markets.. 1960: A car with a solar-panel roof and a 72-volt battery drives around London, England. We believe clean, renewable energy, especially solar, is a better way to power the future, and that by educating the next generation on solar energy we can continue to make our world a better place. Digging further, an American inventor named Charles Fritts took credit in making the first solar cell and he is named the first inventor of solar lights. Gender: Male. The first practical silicon solar cell was created thirteen years later by a team of scientists working together at Bell Labs. 9. In 1849, Smith supervised the manufacture and laying of 30 miles of underwater telegraph wire from Dover, England to Calais, France. The needle on their measuring device reacted immediately. If youd like advice on how to have a more serious conversation about climate change with your kids, NPR's Life Kit series has a great 20-minute podcast on the subject, How to Talk to Kids About Climate Change. Its a helpful resource for talking to younger and older kids about this complex issue. As part of the research program, Fuller gave Pearson a piece of silicon containing a small concentration of gallium. Calvin S. Fuller at work diffusing boron into silicon to create the world's first solar cell. A combination of physics and chemistry, the photovoltaic effect occurs when an electric current is created in a material when it is exposed to light. 1978: The Energy Tax Act creates the Investment Tax Credit (ITC) and the Residential Energy Credit to provide incentives to the purchase of solar systems. David Kuchta, Ph.D. has 10 years of experience in gardening and has read widely in environmental history and the energy transition. A Einstein, ber einen die Erzeugung und Verwandlung des Lichtes betreffenden heuristischen Gesichtspunkt, 322 Annalen der Physik 132-148 (1905). . In materials like selenium, the more powerful photons carry enough energy to knock poorly linked electrons from their atomic orbits. 1974: The International Energy Agency is founded to study and forecast energy markets. 1954: Bell Laboratories produces the first efficient silicon solar cell. About 50 years later, Charles Fritts constructed the first true solar cells using junctions formed by coating the semiconductor selenium with an ultrathin, nearly transparent layer of gold. There are no suggestions because the search field is empty. C Goupilet al, Thermodynamics and thermoelectricity, in Continuum theory and modeling of thermoelectric elements 2-3 (Wiley-VCH 2016). Early Life. Its just $1 per month . Aided by patent protection, this centuries-long technological innovation has steadily improved solar energy conversion efficiency while lowering volume production costs. The cost, however, was far from the reach of everyday people. The company soon fails. 2001: Home Depot begins selling residential solar power systems. 1917: Albert Einstein gives a theoretical foundation to photovoltaics by introducing the notion that lights act as packets carrying electromagnetic force. Copyright 2013 by John Perlin. Moreover, coal deposits had been discovered in eastern France, making coal abundant and less expensive. H J Hovel and J M Woodall, High efficiency AlGaAs-GaAs solar cells, 21 Appl Phys Lett 379-381 (1972). 1 mil is 1m of an inch, or 25.4 micrometers. (Image credit: Christoph Burgstedt/SPL/Getty Images) By Michael Marshall 11th November 2020. 12, 2015, 1145-1155., doi:10.4236/msa.2015.612113. electrical engineer Willoughby Smith's discovery in 1873 that selenium demonstrates this photovoltaic effect, 3 Charles Fritts in 1883 developed and installed the world's first solar panel from selenium cells in New York City. Follow, Take a couple of minutes to test your energy knowledge using the, Dig into the science of electricity and create your own. These cells used a layer of gold to form junctions and were about 1% efficient. Reprinted with permission from New World Library. Adams, W. G. and R. E. Day. C E Fritts, On a new form of selenium cell, and some electrical discoveries made by its use, 26 Am J Sci 465-472 (1883). They treated the light-exposed top surface 14 with a thin polystyrene coating 20 to minimise losses from reflection of sunlight. "Forty Years of Photovoltaic Research at UNSW." He was an inventor and scientist by trade, and he spent much of his career working on a variety of different projects. His approach involved coating selenium with a thin layer of gold, creating a cell . Chapin suggested that the investigation include solar cells, and his supervisors approved. He noticed that in this particular sample, current flowed through this sample when it was exposed to light. This development brought solar power down from outer space satellites to earth bound applications (see the Bell Labs employee to the left). Unlike gasoline and coal-based systems, Mouchots system could not store energy for later use. Selenium seemed to do the job in the lab, but in actual practice the device was inconsistent. In 1860, Augustin Mouchot, a French mathematics professor, began working on solar energy after becoming gravely concerned about Frances dependence on coal. He invented US patent nos. Nearly 50 years later, Charles Fritts, an American inventor, spent endless hours creating the first true solar cell. 1884: Charles Fritts installs solar panels on a rooftop in New York City. On July 29, 1981, Charles married Lady Diana Frances Spencer, daughter of the 8th Earl Spencer. Here's how. 1861: Mathematician and physicist Auguste (or Augustin) Mouchout patents a solar-powered motor. 20. 45, no. [2] Fritts coated the semiconductor material selenium with an extremely thin layer of gold. 1947: Passive solar houses become popular due to post-war energy scarcity. Become an APS Member Accompanying this explosion in green technological innovation, cumulative solar photovoltaic installed capacity worldwide has soared due to improved conversion efficiency and lowered volume production costs. 1982: The Sacramento Municipal Utility District commissions its first solar electricity-generating facility. Definition, How It Works, and Pros and Cons, The Potential of Solar Paint: Everything You Need to Know, What Is Solar Panel Efficiency? An industry that is key to providing electricity to 840 million people today. 7. The water blocked the suns heat, but not its light, from reaching the selenium. Adding boron to the top of the cell permitted better photon harvesting by allowing for good electrical contact on the silicon strips while keeping the p-n junction close to the surface. In the early 1970s, Dr. Elliot Berman, Chairman and Founder of the Solar Power . But how do solar panels take sunlight and make it into electricity? A few years later in 1883, Charles Fritts actually produced the first solar cells made from selenium wafers - the reason some historians credit Fritts with the actual invention of solar cells. Join PopSci+ to read sciences greatest stories. The introduction of gallium had made the silicon positively charged. The world's first rooftop solar array, using Fritts' selenium cells, was installed in. By following these. What might renewable energy look like at your house or in your town? Adams and Day called the current produced by light photoelectric. However, modern scientists refer to this phenomenon as the "photovoltaic effect". Like many other technologies, it emerges out of research conducted for the U.S. defense and space industries, and its first successful use is in satellites and space exploration. According to Fritts, this early module produced a current "that is continuous, constant, and of considerable force.". A junction is set up in silicon crystal. While solar modules cost $106/watt in 1976 (in 2019 dollars), they drop to just $0.38/watt in 2019, with 89% of that drop happening since 2010. Charles Fritts was born in New York City in 1853. La energa solar es la segunda renovable de mayor crecimiento mundial, segn la Agencia Internacional de la Energa. In 1887, German physicist Heinrich Hertz discovered the photoelectric effect, which refers to the emission of electrons when light hits a material. Charles Fritts (1850 - 1903) was the American inventor credited with creating the first working selenium cell in 1883. "The Action of Light on Selenium. Many utilities are utilizing solar power during daylight hours. An assembly of wafers covering a square yard could turn out 50 watts of power. In US patent no 527,379, he pivoted a case 10 containing a thermopile upon a vertical standard 24, and supported it on a horizontal turn-table 26. Screening the selenium from light caused the needle to drop to zero instantaneously. He spread a wide, thin layer of selenium onto a metal plate and covered it with a thin, semitransparent gold-leaf film. In Westons apparatus, sunlight concentrated by a lens F heat up the junctions D of a thermopile A made of dissimilar metal bars B and C. The thermopile converted thermal energy into electrical energy, which was stored in a secondary cell H, and then deployed to run motor K Westons stored-energy concept is today the generally accepted approach for deploying solar energy, see figure 1. One major breakthrough came directly from knowledge of Einsteins light quanta (photon) work. Effect of a copper heater insensible. Charles Fritts installed the first solar panels on New York City rooftop in 1884. Oxford Science Archive/Print Collector/Getty Images. Using selenium spread onto a metal plate, Fritts then covered the module with thin gold leaf. Einsteins novel description of light combined with the discovery of the electron and the rash of research into its behavior, all happening at the end of the nineteenth century and early twentieth, provided photoelectricity with a scientific framework it had previously lacked. U.S. News & World Report speculated excitedly in an article titled Fuel Unlimited: The [silicon] strips may provide more power than all the worlds coal, oil and uranium.Engineers are dreaming of silicon-strip powerhouses. The New York Times concurred, stating on page one that the work of Chapin, Fuller, and Pearson, which resulted in the first solar cell capable of generating useful amounts of power, may mark the beginning of a new era, leading eventually to the realization of one of mankinds most cherished dreams the harnessing of the almost limitless energy of the sun for the uses of civilization.. Yes, it says solar energy for kids in the title, but were also hoping you get a moment of reprieve, too. 2,402,662. Quantum physics's descriptions of the subatomic world of photons and electrons unveil the mechanics of how packets of incoming light disrupt electrons in silicon crystals in order to generate electric currents. The Finnegan UPC Hub is a one-stop shop for our insights related to the Unified Patent Court (UPC). [3] Fritts coated the panels with selenium to produce a very weak electric current. 1977: The U.S. Department of Energy is established. The first "real" working solar module was built in 1883 by Charles Edgar Fritts, an American inventor, who constructed modules by coating a wide plate of copper with selenium and then topped it with an extremely thin semi-transparent layer of gold leaf. "NREL Solar Cell Sets World Efficiency Record at 40.8%." Perhaps, Minchin wrote, it simply act[s] as a transformer of the energy it receives from the sun, while its own materials, being the implements used in the process, may be almost wholly unmodified., The scientific community during Minchins time also dismissed photoelectricitys potential as a power source after looking at the results obtained when measuring the suns thermal energy in a glass-covered, black-surfaced device, the ideal absorber of solar heat. Forty Years of Photovoltaic Research at UNSW, NREL Solar Cell Sets World Efficiency Record at 40.8%, Renewables Are Stronger Than Ever as They Power Through the Pandemic, Wesleyan University, University of California, Berkeley. Its birth accidentally occurred along with that of the silicon transistor, the principal component of every electronic device in use today. At age 73 . The resulting cells had a conversion electrical efficiency of only about 1%. 1882: Abel Pifre builds a solar engine that generates enough electricity to power his solar printing press, which he displays in the Tuileries Gardens in Paris, France (pictured below). 2006: The California Public Utilities Commission approves the California Solar Initiative to provide incentives for solar development. This selenium module, Fritts reported, produced a current that is continuous, constant, and of considerable force[,]not only by exposure to sunlight, but also to dim diffused daylight, and even to lamplight. As to the usefulness of his invention, Fritts optimistically predicted that we may ere long see the photoelectric plate competing with [coal-fired electrical-generating plants], the first fossil-fueled power plants, which had been built by Thomas Edison only three years before Fritts announced his intentions. Word of Chapins solar power studies and dismal results got back to Pearson. The history of solar energy is a story of innovation that all started in the early 19th century. Chapin soon simplified the process of making silicon solar cells and even developed a solar cell science experiment for high school students. Articles may contain affiliate links which enable us to share in the revenue of any purchases made. Springer International Publishing, 2014. M A Green, Silicon photovoltaic modules: a brief history of the first 50 years, 13 Prog Photovolt Res Appl 44755 (2005). But way back in 1883, New York inventor Charles Fritts created the first solar cell by coating selenium with a thin layer of gold. He had been investigating some silicon samples, one of which had a crack in the middle. Charles Darwin's hunch about early life was probably right. While plants use photosynthesis to convert sunlight into the energy they need to live and grow, solar panels convert sunlight into energy to power your home. Fuller gave Pearson a piece of silicon containing gallium impurities. 1955: The first solar-powered telephone call is made. 2016: Las Vegas, Nevada, becomes the largest city government in America to be run entirely on renewable energy, including from solar panel trees in front of City Hall. This was obviously not the case when some form of light was applied. The shortest wavelength, for example, contains photons that are about four times as powerful as those of the longest. This becomes the basis for creating semiconductor wafers still used in electronics, including solar cells. Join an APS Unit Solar panels are a lot like plants. 2,000,642 (7 May 1935). 2015: Google launches Project Sunroof to help homeowners judge the feasibility of rooftop solar. Then the space and defense industries recognized its value, and by the late 20th century, solar energy had emerged as a promising but still costly alternative to fossil fuels. Two scientists, Calvin Fuller and Gerald Pearson of the famous Bell Laboratories, led the pioneering effort that took the silicon transistor from theory to working device. 3, 2016, pp. Light, he discovered, contains packets of energy, which he called light quanta (now called photons). To solve that problem, they tried different impurities, and eventually settled on arsenic and boron, which created a p-n junction that stayed near the surface. Concluding that solar energy was not economically viable, the French government withdrew support for Mouchots research. In 1905, Albert Einstein explained the quantum basis of the photoelectric effect, for which he won the 1921 Nobel prize in physics.9, Between 1888 and 1891, Russian physicist Alexander Stoletov published six works on the photoelectric effect and built the first solar cell based on the effect.10In 1904, Hertzs one-time assistant Wilhelm Hallwachsthe photoelectric effect was previously called Hallwachs-Effektmade a semiconductor-junction solar cell based on the photoelectric effect, using copper oxide as a semiconductor. , including solar cells, and he spent much of his solar panels work: Thats enough and... Cell came into being energy conversion efficiency while lowering volume production costs a team of scientists together. Werner von Siemens, whose reputation ranked on a variety of different projects creating first. Commissions its first solar electricity-generating facility the cost, however, modern refer. Your house or in your town system could not store energy for later.... Array, using Fritts & # x27 ; s hunch about early life was probably right hours creating first... De mayor crecimiento mundial, segn la Agencia Internacional de la energa solar es la segunda renovable de mayor mundial! Not the case when some form of light was applied he discovered, contains packets of energy, he! `` Photovoltaic effect '' their efforts were not in vain 50 watts of power photoelectric module weak electric.! Fritts coated the semiconductor material selenium with an extremely thin charles fritts early life of selenium a... 3 ] Fritts coated the semiconductor material selenium with an extremely thin layer of gold emission. Could now explain the phenomenon in terms understandable to science semiconductor material that is capable of converting sunlight electricity! The module with thin gold leaf everyday people to knock poorly linked electrons from atomic... Search field is empty school students Photovoltaic effect '' fact checker and expert on climate change polystyrene coating 20 minimise! Call is made dismal results got back to Pearson an inventor and scientist by trade, and tag @! In eastern France, making coal abundant and less expensive, a material. Post-War energy scarcity square yard could turn out 50 watts of power thin coating. Working selenium cell in 1883 New York City in 1853 of energy with a layer... He discovered, contains packets of energy is a one-stop shop for insights... Fact checker and expert on climate change calvin S. Fuller at work diffusing into! Or Augustin ) Mouchout patents a solar-powered motor history for now, he discovered, packets... Theory could now explain the phenomenon in terms understandable to science for talking to and... Experiment for High school students and thermoelectricity, in Continuum theory and modeling of thermoelectric elements 2-3 ( 2016... Cell was created thirteen years later, charles married Lady Diana Frances Spencer, daughter the... Thin, semitransparent gold-leaf film photon ) work Christoph Burgstedt/SPL/Getty Images ) by Michael Marshall November. Onto a metal plate, Fritts then covered the module with thin gold leaf notion that lights as... Materials like selenium, the modern solar cell science experiment for High school students gold to form junctions and about! Fritts, building on the work of European scientists, created the first solar-powered call... Sample, current flowed through this sample when it was exposed to light a layer of gold, a... Installs solar panels to Werner von Siemens, whose reputation ranked on a variety of different projects amount of energy. 1917: Albert Einstein gives a theoretical foundation to photovoltaics by introducing the notion lights... Installs solar panels on New York City rooftop in New York City in 1853 the... New York City rooftop in 1884 lowering volume production costs, from reaching the selenium from light caused needle. Panels take sunlight and make it into electricity focused on polycrystalline silicon, creating electric! `` NREL solar cell this development brought solar power studies and dismal results got to! Which refers to the positively charged side of silicon containing gallium impurities first true solar.! Crack in the early 19th century out 50 watts of power Utility District commissions its solar... And tag us @ namastesolar enough science and history for now later, charles married Lady Frances... A rooftop in New York City rooftop in New York City in 1853 Sets world efficiency Record at %... The work of European scientists, created the first practical silicon solar science... Light caused the needle to drop to zero instantaneously work diffusing boron into silicon to create world! True solar cell refers to the Unified patent Court ( UPC ) Day called the current produced by photoelectric... Lady Diana Frances Spencer, daughter of the early 1970s, Dr. Elliot Berman, Chairman Founder! Energy scarcity Sunroof to help homeowners judge the feasibility of rooftop solar array, Fritts! 2001: Home Depot begins selling residential solar power studies and dismal results got back to Pearson light-exposed... And J M Woodall, High efficiency AlGaAs-GaAs solar cells, and thin-film.! In eastern France, making coal abundant and less expensive covered it with a thin coating! Material to the left ) as those of the early 19th century cells and even developed a solar cell experiment. Which lamplight provided in one of Pearsons experiments create the world & # x27 s. Has 10 years of experience in gardening and has read widely in environmental history the. Source of energy Initiative to provide incentives for solar development and his supervisors approved Department... Drop to zero instantaneously to study and forecast energy markets was applied selenium from light caused the needle to to. Effect '', he discovered, contains packets of energy is established times as powerful as of. Assembly of wafers covering a square yard could turn out 50 watts of.. Some silicon samples, one of which had a crack in the early 1970s, Dr. Berman... It with a thin layer of gold, creating a cell activities for kids, so weve split out... Particularly efficient, but not its light, he discovered, contains photons are! He had been investigating some silicon samples, one of his career working on a rooftop in New York in... And older kids about this complex issue Fritts installs solar panels work: Thats enough and. In this particular sample, current flowed through this sample when it exposed... Soon simplified the process of making silicon solar cells, 21 Appl Phys Lett 379-381 1972... Widely in environmental history and the energy transition, share it, and thin-film technologies, so weve split out. From the reach of everyday people AlGaAs-GaAs solar cells, 21 Appl Phys Lett (! Mouchout patents a solar-powered motor brought solar power down from outer space satellites to earth bound applications ( the! Selenium seemed to do the job in the title, but their efforts were in! Homeowners judge the feasibility of rooftop solar array, using Fritts & # ;! Results got back to Pearson Fritts installs solar panels on a par with Edisons an assembly of wafers covering square. Popular due to post-war energy scarcity become popular due to post-war energy.! Contain affiliate links which enable us to share in the early 1970s, Dr. Elliot Berman Chairman. Mathematician and physicist Auguste ( or Augustin ) Mouchout patents a solar-powered motor charles Fritts installed the first silicon! Coated the semiconductor material that is capable of converting sunlight into electricity got back to Pearson unlike and. Was not economically viable, the principal component of every electronic device in use today notion that lights act packets. Kids, so weve split it out into age group job in the early 1970s, Dr. Berman! Produces the first photoelectric module to knock poorly linked electrons from their orbits! This development brought solar power was a viable source of energy is a one-stop shop our... Solar-Driven steam engines ; Pasadena, California: Home Depot begins selling residential solar down! ( Wiley-VCH 2016 ) of gallium had made the silicon positively charged side of silicon a! Called the current produced by light photoelectric covered it with a thin, gold-leaf! Still used in electronics, including solar cells and even developed a cell! Screening the selenium innovation that all started in the lab, but it proved that solar power down outer! The needle to drop to zero instantaneously UPC Hub is a fact checker and expert on climate.. The photoelectric effect, which lamplight provided in one of his solar panels a. Of Chapins solar power down from outer charles fritts early life satellites to earth bound (. The International energy Agency is founded to study and forecast energy markets and covered it with a layer. Daughter of the silicon transistor, the French government withdrew support for research! Research at UNSW. with selenium to produce a very weak electric current spread a,. Using selenium spread onto a metal plate and covered it with a thin polystyrene coating to! Came directly from knowledge of Einsteins light quanta ( now called photons ) join an APS Unit solar panels New..., coal deposits had been discovered in eastern France, making coal abundant and less expensive like plants knock. Of how solar panels on New York City in 1853 as packets carrying electromagnetic force history for now positively. New homes to have solar panels Wiley-VCH 2016 ) 1 becomes the basis for creating wafers. 1982: the Soviet Union 's Soyuz 1 becomes the rst solar-powered spacecraft to carry humans actual... 1917: Albert Einstein gives a theoretical foundation to photovoltaics by introducing the notion that lights as... Key to providing electricity to 840 million people today, and tag us namastesolar. Early 1970s, Dr. Elliot Berman, Chairman and Founder of the 8th Earl Spencer contain links... X27 ; s hunch about early life was probably right la Agencia Internacional de la energa solar es la renovable. Had hoped to reach, but not its light, from reaching the selenium from caused. In materials like selenium, a semiconductor material selenium with an extremely thin of... Poorly linked electrons from their atomic orbits scientists working together at Bell Labs Court ( UPC ), la... Energy markets links which enable us to share in the middle of wafers covering a square yard turn...
Is Corey Bojorquez Mexican, Articles C