Mahabal, Prasad. The first attempt at English settlement of the eastern seaboard of North America occurred in this erathe abortive colony at Roanoke Island in 1587. [10] She risked war with Spain by supporting the "Sea Dogs", such as John Hawkins and Francis Drake, who preyed on the Spanish merchant ships carrying gold and silver from the New World. As, even at this level, education continued to be seen as something that helped one in one's future career as opposed to a pursuit of knowledge for its own sake, women were not present. The first Italian and Spanish decks had the same suits: Swords, Batons/ Clubs, Cups, and Coins. It was very expensive and difficult to make, so the panes were made small and held together with a lead lattice, in casement windows. 01 Apr. Lashed by their consciences, to die, affeard. Here are the worst of the worst. Animal sports included bear and bull baiting, dog fighting and cock fighting. If youve ever walked past an open sewer, youll know how terrible the smell can be. London Sewers By Eithan Perry Where Now? Historians often depict it as the golden age in English history. Although the majority of the teaching was done orally, there were some printed textbooks for Latin grammar and vocabulary, and for arithmetic. It became the fashion in the late 19th century to collect and sing the old songs. Schools were harsh and teachers were very strict, often beating pupils who misbehaved. Pupils who lasted the course might leave the grammar school at the age of 14 or 15, although some continued until they were 18. (These are all games for small group players.) [9] The cost of this megaproject is 4.9 billion,[9] and it is due to be completed in 2024.[10]. Her desire to moderate the religious persecutions of previous Tudor reigns the persecution of Catholics under Edward VI, and of Protestants under Mary I appears to have had a moderating effect on English society. During the early 19th century the River Thames was an open sewer, with disastrous consequences for public health in London, including cholera epidemics. Special interests include art, architecture, and discovering the ideas that all civilizations share. Stale bread could be used to make bread puddings, and bread crumbs served to thicken soups, stews, and sauces. Water-borne diseases like cholera and typhoid fever swept through the population. This "golden age"[1] represented the apogee of the English Renaissance and saw the flowering of poetry, music and literature. Combined with his daring raids against the Spanish and his great victory over them at Cdiz in 1587, he became a famous hero[21]his exploits are still celebratedbut England did not follow up on his claims. The preservation of many Catholic doctrines and practices was the cuckoos nest that eventually resulted in the formation of the Via Media during the 17th century. The English Elizabethan Era is one of the most fascinating periods in the History of England. Prezi Inc., 29 Mar. The pope sent Jesuits and seminarians to secretly evangelize and support Catholics. The English defenses, on the other hand, were thin and outdated; England had too few soldiers and they were at best only partially trained. Ruff and Honors was a team game. Gravity allows the sewage to flow eastwards, but in places such as Chelsea, Deptford and Abbey Mills, pumping stations were built to raise the water and provide sufficient flow. There were open sewers in the streets which were also filled with garbage. Parliament initially offered 2.5 million, somewhere between 240 million and over a billion pounds in today's values. Historically, the era sits between the long era of the dominant architectural style of religious buildings by the Catholic Church, which ended abruptly at the Dissolution of the Monasteries from c.1536, and the advent of a court culture of . [78], With William Shakespeare at his peak, as well as Christopher Marlowe and many other playwrights, actors and theatres constantly busy, the high culture of the Elizabethan Renaissance was best expressed in its theatre. Historian's refer to the era as "the golden age" but at the time, the city of London was anything but. Mark is a full-time author, researcher, historian, and editor. It was also the end of the period when England was a separate realm before its royal union with Scotland. metres of earth. Lacking a dominant genius or a formal structure for research (the following century had both Sir Isaac Newton and the Royal Society), the Elizabethan era nonetheless saw significant scientific progress. Raleigh and Elizabeth sought both immediate riches and a base for privateers to raid the Spanish treasure fleets. Alternatively, some youngsters may have progressed to a cheap private tutor, a role often taken on by women and some members of the clergy. Martin Frobisher landed at Frobisher Bay on Baffin Island in August 1576; He returned in 1577, claiming it in Queen Elizabeth's name, and in a third voyage tried but failed to found a settlement in Frobisher Bay. World History Encyclopedia. Human waste piled up in courtyards and overflowed from basement cesspits into the gutters and waterways. While Elizabethan England is not thought of as an age of technological innovation, some progress did occur. Some girls might be sent but typically did not attend after the age of nine or ten. The Elizabethan era saw the birth of plays that were far more morally complex, vital and diverse. Once in 2 months, we enact stage plays which create awareness among the people. The 'Silent Highway' - 'Your money or your life': 1858. Roast beef remained a staple for those who could afford it. London's rapid growth had not been accompanied by the infrastructure improvements needed to deal with the huge amount of sewage produced each day. Another major conspiracy was the Babington Plot the event which most directly led to Mary's execution, the discovery of which involved a double agent, Gilbert Gifford, acting under the direction of Francis Walsingham, the Queen's highly effective spy master. Almost no original theological thought came out of the English Reformation; instead, the Church relied on the Catholic Consensus of the first Four Ecumenical Councils. system and emerging above ground railway systems. The children in better-off families, the gentry and aristocracy, would have received private tuition and may also have spent time learning how to properly conduct themselves by living in the residence of a local noble (although this was becoming less fashionable) or even going abroad on the Grand Tour. Scheidies . During the Elizabethan Era, both the French and the Spanish, the two other superpowers of the day, were in almost constant conflict with with England. More people live in London than ever before, and during periods of heavy rainfall, the combined waste and water still gets dumped straight into the Thames. Most towns sponsored plays enacted in town squares followed by the actors using the courtyards of taverns or inns (referred to as inn-yards) followed by the first theatres (great open-air amphitheatres and then the introduction of indoor theatres called playhouses). He argues that the Spanish army was larger, more experienced, better-equipped, more confident, and had better financing. Satirical illustration of the polluted River Thames by George Cruikshank, 1832. for Illustration of London slum with subtitle 'A court for King Cholera'. Called the Great Stink of 1858, the stench became so insufferable during a particularly bad heat wave that it prompted the government to take action. Technically, the Armada failed because Spain's over-complex strategy required coordination between the invasion fleet and the Spanish army on shore. London's Sewers in the Elizabethan Era The people did not realize the harm they were doing. The card suits tended to change over time. By the 1840s, approximately 150 million tons of waste werepoured into the River Thames each year. Diseases and natural disasters also contributed to the scarce food supply. Bibliography Of course, in the dirty 21st century, we're putting new strains on Bazalgette's greatest work. "Education in the Elizabethan Era." Some boys went to university at the age of about 14. Spain was well established in the Americas, while Portugal, in union with Spain from 1580, had an ambitious global empire in Africa, Asia and South America. In popular culture, the image of those adventurous Elizabethan seafarers was embodied in the films of Errol Flynn. In 184849 there was a second outbreak of cholera, and this was followed by a further outbreak in 185354. In 1831 a terrifying new epidemic arrived in London, bringing with it fear and panicand a sense of urgency about the city's sanitation problems. One of the side effects of the infection was also increased bowel movements, which worsened the cycle. streets, which would only be cleaned in a heavy shower of The Elizabethan Age was also an age of plots and conspiracies, frequently political in nature, and often involving the highest levels of Elizabethan society. This helped them cope with the nauseating odor of the Thames. Nowadays, men and women have equal roles in society and one gender is not better or smarter than the other. The ideas of Humanism which had become popular during the Renaissance greatly influenced the curriculum with the idea that, once armed with a knowledge of Latin and Greek, students could learn from classical texts the civic values which would allow them to best serve their careers and the state. Finally, then just as now, some schools organised an annual play, which involved much rehearsal and preparation throughout the academic year. Published in Punch magazine, 10 July 1858, during the summer of the "Great Stink". The first appearance of cholera in 1831was followed in 1837 and 1838 by epidemics of influenza and typhoid, prompting the government to ask the lawyer and leading social reformer Edwin Chadwick to carry out an enquiry into sanitation. The Elizabethan Era was a period of time from 1558-1603 where Queen Elizabeth I was in power. The lowest court card was therefore called the knave until later when the term "Jack" became more common. [1] Proposals to modernise the sewerage system had been made in the early 1700s but the costs of such a project deterred progress. How Bazalgette built London's first super-sewer 28 March is the birth anniversary of Joseph Bazalgette, the Victorian engineer who masterminded London's modern sewer system. After two centuries, a lost view of London's vanished skyline is revealed again. Many of the lower classes had access to playing cards. Consulting engineer Sir William Halcrow & Partners designed a system of large diameter tunnels served by new pumping stations. During the Black Death, infected houses were quarantinedand strangers banned from entering towns, but at the same time,fires were used to destroy infected materials and people wore masks and nosegays to purify the air they breathed. London's
[51], Education would begin at home, where children were taught the basic etiquette of proper manners and respecting others. The rich also enjoyed hunting small game and birds with hawks, known as falconry. However, the lower classes did not benefit much and did not always have enough food. Creating situations of competition between pupils with an atmosphere of fear of physical punishment and humiliation was the usual approach. Many people take things like sewage systems for granted but the massive structures running beneath London are very important! eight million and is essential to the smooth-running of London. Sanitation in Elizabethan times was awful. During the Elizabethan era, English folks used chamber pots and dumped their waste onto the streets of London. [24] In 1600, the queen chartered the East India Company in an attempt to break the Spanish and Portuguese monopoly of far Eastern trade. So, thanks to the Reader-Response theory, the use Shakespeare makes of the supernatural in Hamlet and Macbeth as far as ghosts and witches are concerned are shown and deciphered with the view on how the author exploits the cultural heritage of the country; the beliefs and the superstitions of the Elizabethan era. He also found time to design a number of other major pieces of engineering, including Battersea Bridge, Albert Bridge, Putney Bridge, and early plans for the Blackwall Tunnel. There was no running water, you did not have indoor toilets, and there was no toilet paper. Having inherited a virtually bankrupt state from previous reigns, her frugal policies restored fiscal responsibility. Schools and groups can book free tickets here. Grammar school teachers were as keen on discipline as in the preparatory schools so the birch cane (or a bundle of them) would have been painfully remembered by most pupils. In the Elizabethan period, the age of the child did not often relate to what they studied, much depended on individual ability rather than the modern idea of moving a whole class of the same age along a fixed curriculum. . The Thames Tideway Tunnel. With taxes lower than other European countries of the period, the economy expanded; though the wealth was distributed with wild unevenness, there was clearly more wealth to go around at the end of Elizabeth's reign than at the beginning. Joseph Bazalgette had spent 6.5 million building or revamping 2,100 km (1,300 miles) of sewers in London. tunnelling under the West End, Bazalgette reclaimed land by the Thames to create
There were two types of school in Tudor times: petty school was where young boys were taught to read and write; grammar school was where abler boys were taught English and Latin. Petty schools had shorter hours, mostly to allow poorer boys the opportunity to work as well. So whats the answer? the sewers were already serving four million by their completion. There were some institutions in the Elizabethan era that took in girls only, but these were akin to babysitting services where the adult guardian was often illiterate themselves. The universities were organised as individual colleges with teaching being carried out in small groups and one-to-one tuition. The new sewerage system was opened in 1865. London's Sewers are a triumph of Victorian engineering. Their homes were, as in earlier centuries, thatched huts with one or two rooms, although later on during this period, roofs were also tiled. Only the most wealthy people allowed their daughters to be taught, and only at home. In Non-aristocratic children might also have received some private tuition to fill gaps and learn subjects their school did not provide such as French, dancing, or music. South of the river, the Southern Outfall Sewer extends to a similar facility at Crossness. [37], Historians since the 1960s have explored many facets of the social history, covering every class of the population. English Grammar School ClassroomEdmund Hort New (Public Domain). Most people did not bathe regularly. During this time, endowed schooling became available. The following year cholera returned one final time. It shouldnt be too difficult to imagine, then, the stench in London during the time that the Thames was used as a sewer. [30][31], Elizabeth managed to moderate and quell the intense religious passions of the time. These new stone constructions narrowed the river, reclaiming about 22 acres of land from the Thames. This gave an opportunity to build large new "embankments" along the river, encasing the sewer pipes and also an underground tube line. The Essex Rebellion of 1601 has a dramatic element, as just before the uprising, supporters of the Earl of Essex, among them Charles and Joscelyn Percy (younger brothers of the Earl of Northumberland), paid for a performance of Richard II at the Globe Theatre, apparently with the goal of stirring public ill will towards the monarchy. and was virtually complete by 1868, a major achievement for its time. Men had a dominant role in society during the . The English Reformation ensured the separation of the Church from education but children still learnt prayers and the catechism, and religious texts were often used to teach reading. The people of London survived a cholera epidemic in 1853 after drinking unsafe water from the River Thames, but what really spurred them into changing the way they handled sewage was the "Great Stink" of 1858. Until the new sewer system
It was an age of exploration and expansion abroad, while back at home, the Protestant Reformation became more acceptable to the people, most certainly after the Spanish Armada was repelled. Most people did not bathe regularly. This was occasionally removed and waste was dumped into the nearest river such as the Thames. [68], In contrast to her father's emphasis on masculinity and physical prowess, Elizabeth emphasized the maternalism theme, saying often that she was married to her kingdom and subjects. [9], While Henry VIII had launched the Royal Navy, Edward and Mary had ignored it and it was little more than a system of coastal defense. Here are 10 things you didnt know about the infamous London Sewerage System. [29] Nevertheless, more Catholics were persecuted, exiled, and burned alive than under Queen Mary. The lowest court subject in England was called the "knave". an epic voyage made by two University students (Heyden and The Victorian brick-lined tunnels are still the basis of London's sewer system even today, thanks to Joseph Bazalgette's foresight. As of 2019, London is home to more than 8 million people, which is more than double what the sewers were designed to cope with. The school day started at 7:00 am in winter and 6:00 am in summer and finished about 5:00 pm. Nineteenth-century living was not much better. Bazalgette would be proud. Read about why and how we put sewage in an exhibition. This was not a course of pleasure, though it could be as everything was a treat, but one of healthful eating and abetting the digestive capabilities of the body. It is no surprise that a bill was rushed through Parliament and became law in just 18 days, to provide more money to construct a massive new sewer scheme for London. alchemists* if no-one else. Bazalgette insisted on the use of the the relatively new Portland cement, an extremely strong substance that is also water-resistant. Farr's work was then considered conclusive. At this time, London was the heart of England, reflecting all the vibrant qualities of the Elizabethan Age. World History Encyclopedia is a non-profit organization. bricks to create the underground system and dug up more than 2.5 million cubic
by Lee Jackson. [52] Petty schools were for all children aged from 5 to 7 years of age. No sewage systems. We have a Shelton, and a Heyden got, The Elizabethan Era was a time where men were in charge and women and children were expected to obey. In order to make some extra money, men who worked as day laborers would visit people's homes at night to clean their cesspools. . [7] The Isle of Dogs drainage network is served by a stormwater pumping station situated in Stewart Street, designed by John Outram Associates. Mansions were often designed to a symmetrical plan; "E" and "H" shapes were popular.[43]. Elizabethan Era Military . Last modified August 05, 2020. [47], There was an unprecedented expansion of education in the Tudor period. By further contaminating London's water supply, the risk of cholera was greatly increased. [8] It was reported at the trial of Essex by Chamberlain's Men actor Augustine Phillips, that the conspirators paid the company forty shillings "above the ordinary" (i. e., above their usual rate) to stage the play, which the players felt was too old and "out of use" to attract a large audience. Many rural folk and some townspeople tended a small garden which produced vegetables such as asparagus, cucumbers, spinach, lettuce, beans, cabbage, turnips, radishes, carrots, leeks, and peas, as well as medicinal and flavoring herbs. Bazalgette's scheme simply dumped the sewage eight miles downstream, via pumping stations at Deptford and Abbey Mills. There was no real sewer system. London's sewage network Suggestions for further research In 1831 a terrifying new epidemic arrived in London, bringing with it fear and panicand a sense of urgency about the city's sanitation problems. Although the new sewers were a godsend, they didnt totally eradicate all raw waste from finding its way into the Thames. Thank you! Four such inns in London were Gray's Inn, Lincoln's Inn, Middle Temple, and Inner Temple, and these collectively became known as the Inns of Court. No wonder the Bubonic Plague spread like wildfire throughout England. Sanitation and good hygiene practices such as washing walls and floors, removing the foul-smelling sources of miasmasdecaying waste and sewagewere miasmatic measures. The upper classes often celebrated religious festivals, weddings, alliances and the whims of the king or queen. [2] This idealising tendency was shared by Britain and an Anglophilic America. The Protestant/Catholic divide was settled, for a time, by the Elizabethan Religious Settlement, and parliament was not yet strong enough to challenge royal absolutism. Learn how Bazalgette helped clear the city's streets of poo, and how you're still benefiting from his genius every time you flush. During the 20th century, major improvements were made to the sewerage system and to the sewage treatment provision to substantially reduce pollution of the Thames Estuary and the North Sea. Parker (1996) argues that the full-rigged ship was one of the greatest technological advances of the century and permanently transformed naval warfare. Non-academic activities included running, wrestling, archery, and chess. The astronomers Thomas Digges and Thomas Harriot made important contributions; William Gilbert published his seminal study of magnetism, De Magnete, in 1600. The measures that Chadwick introduced were based on the medical thinking of the day, which attributed the spread of infectious diseases to foul smelling air, called miasma. 10 Things You Didn't Know About The London Sewerage System, Originally, Sewage Was Deposited Into The River Thames, The Terrible Smell In London Provoked The Creation Of The Sewerage System, Before The Sewers, Thousands Died From Cholera, The New Sewers Didnt Account For The Current Population Growth, There Is Still Some Sewage That Goes Into The Thames, The Thames Tideway Tunnel Is Rectifying This, Londoners Originally Tried Masking The Smell With Lime Chloride, 10 Avoidable Mistakes You Dont Want To Make In London, Creepy History: 10 Eerie Facts About The Tower Of London, 10 Oldest Pubs In London (& The Historic Events That Happened There), 5 Reasons Why Brits Love London (And 5 Reasons Why They Hate It), 10 Things To Do In London If You Only Have 24 Hours, Lavish Accommodations: Discovering The 10 Most Expensive Hotels In Chile, Breathtaking Mountain Views & Great Luxury: 10 Most Expensive Hotels In Argentina, Spirited Stays: 10 Haunted Hotels In Savannah To Satisfy Your Paranormal Passion, Are You A Betting Traveler? Business Insider explains that this has caused the sewers to become overloaded. They would also search the River Thames shoreline for treasures. The era called the Elizabethan England was a time of many changes and developments and was also considered as the Golden Age in English history. RELATED: 5 Reasons Why Brits Love London (And 5 Reasons Why They Hate It). Poor hygiene and inadequate medical knowledge meant that disease ran rampant, and this lack of care affected dental health, as well. Seven Quick Facts -Construction Dates: 1858 - 1870. Relief from the rather tedious curriculum was provided by some time spent on sports. The eccentric but influential John Dee also merits mention. This film tells you. The Metropolitan Board of Works had wanted to improve London's sewers for years, but didn't have enough money. The upper classes ate fine white bread called manchet, while the poor ate coarse bread made of barley or rye. Childhood Queen Elizabeth was raised like . Signed by Joseph Bazalgette. She explained "I keep the good will of all my husbands my good people for if they did not rest assured of some special love towards them, they would not readily yield me such good obedience",[69] and promised in 1563 they would never have a more natural mother than she. Every month had its own holiday, some of which are listed below: On this Wikipedia the language links are at the top of the page across from the article title. Smaller sewage treatment plants also serve areas further away from central London, such as at Mogden and Edmonton. Watching plays became very popular during the Tudor period. The Curtain was built some 200 yards south of London's first playhouse, The Theatre, which had opened a year before, in 1576. Thames Water says it spends about 1m a month clearing . Further proposals followed in 1856, but were again neglected due to the costs. Such was the overpowering smell from the Thames, the curtains of the Houses of Parliament were soaked in chloride of lime in a vain effort to block out the smell. [31] This was justified on the grounds that Catholics were not persecuted for their religion but punished for being traitors who supported the Queen's Spanish foe; in practice, however, Catholics perceived it as religious persecution and regarded those executed as martyrs. Historian's refer to the era as "the golden age" but at the time, the city of London was anything but. Still, over the latter half of the 16th century CE more people were being educated than ever before and levels of literacy greatly improved thanks to some free schools, the presence of relatively cheap grammar schools in most towns, and the increased availability of printed reading matter and teaching tools. On completion of their studies, the students were issued with a license to represent clients in the law courts, which were booming with an unprecedented wave of litigations. Please support World History Encyclopedia. [39] The walls of Tudor houses were often made from timber and wattle and daub, or brick; stone and tiles were more common in the wealthier homes. People who could not afford glass often used polished horn, cloth or paper. Sometimes older boys would teach the younger ones for them to polish up their Latin and reach the required standard needed in the lessons with the master. It took nine years for an engineer and his team to develop a system of sewers that would funnel waste to the outskirts of the city and away from the River Thames instead of into it. drove himself to the limits in realising his subterranean dream. Coontz, Stephanie. This investigation inspired the Public Health Act of 1848 and the establishment of the general Board of Health, of which Chadwick was the first director. When Henry VIII shut the monasteries he closed their schools. Few people have done more to change the River Thames, or London, than Joseph Bazalgette. This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. The role of women in society was, for the historical era, relatively unconstrained; Spanish and Italian visitors to England commented regularly, and sometimes caustically, on the freedom that women enjoyed in England, in contrast to their home cultures. Sewage cleaners beneath Lower Thames Street, 1974. Although there were rewards such as a place in a higher class, or for group teaching, which was common, an entire class could be given a half-day holiday or permitted a period of 'misrule' to let off steam. Most dramatic was the 1605 Gunpowder Plot to blow up the House of Lords during the State Opening of Parliament. -Size: 450 miles (720km) of main sewers fed by 13,000 miles (21,000km) of local sewers. The afternoon lessons began at 1 pm, and the day finished at 4 or 5 pm. The meals would have been wonderful, consisting of new foods and imported spices crafted from the finest ingredients. Much of this scientific and technological progress related to the practical skill of navigation. The coronation of Queen Elizabeth in 1558 ushered in the Elizabethan era.This is often considered the high point of the English Renaissance and Tudor culture.. There were also 1,100 miles of street sewers implemented. It was discovered in time with eight conspirators executed, including Guy Fawkes, who became the iconic evil traitor in English lore. Family Life in the Age of Shakespeare. At the end of the 1800s, germ theory was able to account for both infection through contaminants in air and water and person-to-person contact but it still left unanswered questionssuch as why, when two people were exposed to the same source of infection, only one might get the disease and the other appeared untouched. [57], In the 17th century, the food supply improved. Elizabeth said "I have no desire to make windows into men's souls". Top 10 Things Involved in Medicine and Surgery in the Elizabethan Era, a Presi Presentation by Allison Poe Elizabethan Medicine and Illnesses From the website Elizabethan Era. [14] He led another voyage to the Americas the following year, but nothing was heard of him or his ships again.[15]. Currently being constructed, the tunnel will be able to catch the sewage that would normally be dumped to the Thames and deposit it elsewhere. And what if they escaped? By contrast, Bazalgette insisted not only on large tunnels, but doubled their proposed size to accommodate the growth of the city. The teachers at preparatory schools varied tremendously in terms of their own skills and knowledge, only around one-third would have studied at a university themselves. The Elizabethan Era is not only famous for the Virgin Queen but also for the era itself - Great Explorers, such as Sir Francis Drake and Walter . [34] The Apostolic Succession was maintained, the institution of the church continued without a break (with 98% of the clergy remaining at their posts) and the attempt to ban music in church was defeated. London SW7 2DD. 1634). During storms, for example, high levels of rainfall (in excess of 6mm per hour) in a short period of time can overwhelm the system. From Mayhew's London Labour and the London Poor. Dumped into the nearest River such as the Thames 1m a month clearing engineer Sir William Halcrow Partners! 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[ 31 ], in the late 19th century to collect and sing the old songs century... No wonder the Bubonic Plague spread like wildfire throughout England Elizabethan seafarers was embodied in the films of Flynn! New ( Public Domain ) Henry VIII shut the monasteries he closed their schools infection! Some schools organised an annual play, which worsened the cycle in power also the end of the period England. [ 37 ], Elizabeth managed to moderate and quell the intense religious passions of the Elizabethan Era a... Latin grammar and vocabulary, and for arithmetic failed because Spain 's over-complex strategy required coordination between the fleet! For those who could afford it not realize the harm they were doing inadequate medical knowledge meant disease... Their schools, vital and diverse hygiene practices such as at Mogden and Edmonton 1,! Done more to change the River Thames shoreline for treasures celebrated religious festivals weddings. 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Spain 's over-complex strategy required coordination between the invasion fleet and the day finished at 4 or pm. Day finished at 4 or 5 pm when England was a period of time from 1558-1603 where Elizabeth...