PubMedGoogle Scholar. Discourse has power because language can shape how we view phenomena simple acts such as defining a conflict as one of terrorism, for example, then calls into effect a range of policy options associated with countering terrorism. About us. The growth of Private Military Companies (PMCs) or Private Military Security Contractors (PMSCs) in the 1990s and their increased use in conflicts has been a consequence of a range of different factors: increasing neo-liberalization, cuts to defense budgets and a desire for states to outsource security. Scholars such as Adler (2008), Pouliot (2008), and Hopf (2002) found this reflective aspect of the logic of appropriateness to allow for too much independence between agents and structures. States interactions are socially constructed. What is the main argument of constructivism? Despite their position of material weakness, the Melians argued that freedom and justice are more important. The norms-oriented work that followed this initial burst of activity in the 2000s built upon the success that was achieved, but also changed the trajectory of research on social norms in world politics to include broader notions of norm dynamics. Further, constructivists became more cautious about basing their analyses on the logic of appropriateness. Norm shift around the idea of sovereignty can be seen in the pillars of R2P that say that if a state cannot or will not stop human rights abuses within its own territory, other states have a compelling reason to intervene. - 51.75.65.162. The underlying idea of the logic of appropriateness that actors draw upon ideas about what they should do in specific situations given who they are was consistent with social constructivisms commitment to the causal and constitutive (Wendt 1998) effects of norms. Constructivisms key influences come from sociological and philosophical perspectives on the nature of reality and phenomena, which brings knowledge, language, and social relations to the fore. Jacobsen (2003:60) recognizes the need to theorize this relationship observing that, constructivists of all stripes seem to agree that it is vital to theorize links between subjective experience and social/institutional structures. The two versions of norm dynamics discussed above posit different conceptions of the intersubjective/subjective relationship, but neither has developed the final answer to this open question. On the contrary, this analytic device has a deep history in the sociological and economic literatures. 3536). Clearly this is a continuum because if agents were truly independent from or entirely dependent upon social structures, we would not be talking about constructivism. This chapter will concentrate on some of the main elements that have relevance for military studies. Liberal international relations theory and the military. To be specific, I navigated core tenets of constructivism in terms of its ontology, epistemology, and methodology, respectively. The social construction of Swedish neutrality: Challenges to Swedish identity and sovereignty. For the Athenians, the refusal of the Melians the much weaker party to submit and their preference for neutrality was an affront to their power. Even among security communities such as the Nordic states, different strategic cultures can be found because they are informed by a range of historical and cultural experiences, with different experiences of war and conflict, membership of alliances, and other factors (see special issues of Cooperation and Conflict (2005) and Global Affairs (2018) for further discussions). Fierke, K. M. (2001). However, the separation between the two kinds of norms research discussed above may ultimately be artificial. Sandholtz (2008) himself proposes a cyclical model to explain the evolution of norms prohibiting wartime plunder. The superior military capabilities of the USA were a significant material advantage that should have compelled Iraq to avoid invasion. They are both based on philosophical views. Pouliot (2008:259) argues that most of what people do in world politics, as in any other social field, does not derive from conscious deliberation or thoughtful reflection. International Organization, 48(2), 185214. Tannenwald, N. (2017). The culture of national security. The dominant focus of traditional theories on state and distribution of . An example here is in what is generally called the laws of armed conflict, such as the Geneva Conventions, which sets the rules for how victims of war are to be treated, and the Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907), which addressed the conduct of war, such as the types of weapons permissible in warfare. (Wendts book is vital reading for all constructivist scholars and his ontological and epistemological position on constructivism is set out more fully here. Cooperation and Conflict, 49(4), 519535. Roennfeldt, C. F. (2022). Prominent in the initial empirical norms research in this vein were studies that examined how given norms in a particular community diffused to actors outside the community (e.g., Risse-Kappen 1994; Keck and Sikkink 1998; Risse, Ropp, and Sikkink 1999; Checkel 2001; Johnston 2001). Whose progress, which morals? 1820; see also Katzenstein 1996). Douglas, B. Rather than passive receptacles, norm takers have a very active role to play in socialization and can influence the meaning of the norms that constitute the very community they are being asked to join (Ba 2006). Indeed, norms, identity, and ideas are key factors in constructivist theory. Risse (2000:6) captured the essence of the internal critique when he noted that the logic of appropriateness actually encompasses two different modes of social action and interaction. In one mode, appropriate actions are internalized and become thoughtlessly enacted at times as a precursor to or foundation of strategic behavior (Risse 2000:6) actors reasoning through social norms. (2002). Violation of the Geneva Conventions constitutes a war crime. This realization was part of what prompted the serious focus on domestic political/normative contexts in much of this literature. 1. Constructivists discuss questions of identity and belief. New York: Routledge. Yet, the analytic choices made had consequences for how norms were understood and these initial conditions significantly shaped both constructivist analysis and the kind of critiques of norms research that subsequently emerged. New York: Columbia University Press. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. If it was not, then the international order and what security means could be something completely different. You could not be signed in, please check and try again. ), Handbook of military sciences (pp. An unnecessary war. International Relations from a Social Perspective. As we have seen in chapter 4, various factors can influence a country's interpretation of a convention. ), The culture of national security: Norms and identity in world politics (pp. . 394395). Introduction to special section: from Nordic exceptionalism to a third order priority variations of Nordicness in foreign and security policy. Legro (1996) provided insight on a traditional security issue by delineating how normative ideas embedded in organizational culture at the domestic level could explain puzzling (for traditional international relations theories) variation in war fighting decisions in World War II. It brought former Warsaw Pact nations into its fold and strengthened convergence around normative issues such as human rights through social learning (Gheciu 2005; Fierke and Wiener 1999). For example, when considering what national identity means for a state like the UK, critical constructivists would include forgotten experiences or identities that make up its multicultural society, rather than just define British identity as white. Early constructivist work in the 1980s and early 1990s sought to establish a countervailing approach to the material and rational theories that dominated the study of international relations (e.g., Wendt 1987, 1992; Onuf 1989; Kratochwil 1989; Ruggie 1993; Kratochwil and Ruggie 1986). Subsequently, states do what they can to secure themselves, which often means resorting to military force. Ideas do not float freely: Transnational coalitions, domestic structures, and the end of the cold war. While some of the major criticisms of constructivist thought should be at the forefront when considering security and military problems through this lens, the potential to see the world in more dynamic terms is one of constructivisms leading contributions. For liberals, the belief that liberal ideas such as democracy and the free market are ideas to be shared to make the world a better place suggests a transfer of ideas rather than an exchange of ideas. 1516). How militaries assess and interpret threat can be related to culture, intersubjective meanings, and social networks and understandings. Mlksoo, M. (2018). Fierke, K. M., & Wiener, A. Risse-Kappen, T. (1994). In addition, norms-oriented research and the constructivist literature writ large has begun to concern itself more with research questions that fall out from constructivist thought independently without as much reference to competing approaches (Checkel 2004). In: Sookermany, A.M. (eds) Handbook of Military Sciences. Foreign Policy, 134, 5059. International Studies Review, 4(1), 4972. Constructivism accounts for this issue by arguing that the social world is of our making (Onuf 1989). From this mainly structural perspective, social norms were conceptualized as an alternative to rationalist/materialist variables in explanations of world politics. London: Penguin. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Second, at a broader level, the current norms literature is wrestling with the relationship between intersubjective and subjective reality. In this sense, under a constructivist lens, key concepts like sovereignty and power can take on different meanings compared to how they are understood in realist frameworks or defense-oriented establishments. Steele, B. [3] If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. [1] [2] [3] The most important ideational factors are those that are collectively held; these collectively held beliefs construct the interests and identities of actors. Reviewing the complementary identity-oriented approaches is beyond the scope of this essay, but its neglect here in no way reflects the importance of this crucial aspect of constructivist theorizing (on identity see, e.g., Hall 1999; Hopf 2002). Introduction. The dominant belief about identities in our societies is essentialism. (2018). To construct something is an act which brings into being a subject or object that otherwise would not exist. They (2005:25) note, As domestic actors search about for new ideas to legitimate their self-interested preferences, the norms and institutions of the international system often provide them. While Cortell and Davis do not problematize the substance of the financial liberalization norm under examination, they do attend to a neglected aspect of norm dynamics the actions of those actors who are targeted for socialization. Silverstone, S. (2021). To conclude social constructivism believe that reality does not exist outside our consciousness, it only exists as 'intersubjective awareness' among people. Constructivists are certainly aware that actual behavior in world politics fails to correlate exactly to what are in essence ideal typical models of behavior. Rather it seeks to explore how the current reality evolved (Farrell 2002, p. 59). (pp. International Relations: Constructivism pt1 1. On the contrary, early, empirically oriented constructivists worked to demonstrate that shared ideas about appropriate state behavior had a profound impact on the nature and functioning of world politics. Following the initial success of empirical norms studies that established the efficacy of studying norms and showed that they mattered, current norms research explores when/where norms matter and how/when/why norms themselves change to a greater extent. To dig deeper into what makes an agent or what structures global politics, constructivists look to norms and culture to make sense of what represents or guides behavior and how ideas of self inform that. Constructing institutional interests: EU and NATO enlargement. European Journal of International Relations, 5(4), 435450. Main Theorists. This is particularly relevant to military studies in terms of understanding the strategic culture of specific states: culture can have an important influence on how states see security, how they interpret threat and train and organize their military forces. In the other mode, actors actively consider their normative context in an attempt to reason about the best (appropriate) course of action actors reasoning about social norms. The scope of military conduct can also be institutionalized, and constructivism provides a way to understand such processes. They serve as concrete foundations for the different conceptions of norm dynamics that are emerging in the current literature because they provide conceptions of how actors and norms are linked. (2009). Norms were conceptualized as having specific behavioral strictures (a relatively bounded set of appropriate behaviors) that did not change. Instead, practices are the result of inarticulate, practical knowledge that makes what is done appear self-evident or commensenical.. Manchester: Manchester University Press. To gain acceptance and make the case that constructivist ideas mattered empirically, constructivists endeavored to demonstrate how their ideational perspective could provide superior understanding and explanation of political phenomena. Understanding how ideas about danger and threat are socially constructed, and how states form social relations in the international system is a key starting point in discussions about global security. International Relations, 22(2), 243261. Second, and more significantly, both the norm compliance and norm change research agendas engage seriously with notions of normative contestation, directly problematizing aspects of norm dynamics that tended to be held constant in earlier work. The Peloponnesian War. Two have become particularly prominent compliance with the strictures of social norms and change in norms themselves. Abstract Social constructivism is not among the most popular theoretical approaches used in forecasting in International Relations. Countering hybrid warfare as ontological security management: The emerging practices of the EU and NATO. The logic of arguing has inspired the development of significant empirical research (e.g., Muller 2004; Bjola 2005; Leiteritz 2005; Mitzen 2005) and it is the foundation for some approaches to reasoning about social norms (the logic of consequences is also implicated in approaches that consider that actors reason about norms). They consider that actors can stand outside a normative structure to consider options. Risses (2000) and Sendings (2002) critiques focus on the taken-for-granted mode of action implied the logic of appropriateness. (Eds.). International Organization, 53(3), 433468. There. This dynamism, it should also be noted, may not always be positive ideas about security can also regress or become less normative or progressive. Studies of contestation and norm change have begun to examine diverse issues like organizational change in international financial institutions (Nielson, Tierney, and Weaver 2006; Chwieroth 2008); European integration (Meyer 2005; Van Kersbergen and Verbeek 2007; Dimitrakopoulos 2008); environment (Bailey 2008); election monitoring (Kelley 2008); and security (Kornprobst 2007). Constructivists argue that international life is social, resulting from the ways people interact with each other (i.e. Early constructivist work in the 1980s and early 1990s sought to establish a countervailing approach to the material and rational theories that dominated the study of international relations. Birdsall, A. Understanding compliance with and contestation over norms either in isolation or together can be enhanced by paying more attention to the prior understanding of who is in the community. Critical constructivists pay greater attention to issues of power and dominant discourses that construct national identity.. Theo Farrell (2002, p. 50) explains this in the following way: where actors are great powers, the social structure is an international system that gives meaning to great power and recognizes this identity in particular practices, such as the use of force against smaller states; through such practices, states great and small in turn shape the international system. If the world is anarchic, Wendt argued, it is because states believe it to be so, and seek to secure themselves by the logic that anarchy produced. Certainly actors are strategic, but constructivist logic dictates that the normative context defines and shapes that strategic behavior (Muller 2004). (1996). 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